Emergency assistance and care for urban homeless individuals pose a ubiquitous challenge within the governance of world-class megacities. This challenge is particularly salient in international metropolises characterized by population density, economic affluence, and industrial heterogeneity. The enduring presence of homelessness in these locales presents formidable trials for urban governance and exigency management. In the post-pandemic era, urban development faces an array of heightened challenges. The exacerbation of wealth disparity, the deepening aging demographic, the escalation of economic recession coupled with an increase in unemployment, collectively contribute to the burgeoning urban homeless population. These factors collectively impact social stability and order.
In recent years, Tokyo Metropolis has progressively established an ‘Emergency Assistance System for Homeless Individuals,’ which combines real-time urban information monitoring with coordinated mobile patrols. Through this integrated emergency assistance system, the municipal government can swiftly gather information about urban homeless individuals, including their movement patterns, locations of residence, and personal details. This facilitates prompt assistance in cases of emergencies. This holds significant lessons for rapidly urbanizing China.
Why the young homeless population in Tokyo is expanding？
1. Economic Downturn and Sluggish Labor Market
Tokyo, being the most bustling capital region of Japan, has the highest number of homeless people in the country. According to multiple rounds of estimation and random surveys conducted by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government since 2014, the homeless population has a tendency to become long-term and younger. Many multinational companies in Tokyo cannot maintain the Japanese employment model represented by seniority-based salary and lifetime employment, and have to reduce operating costs by selling assets and laying off employees. In particular, after the Japanese government revised the labor dispatch law, labor dispatch became the norm. Many young people in Tokyo have fewer opportunities for stable employment, while many middle-aged and elderly workers who had worked in the city for years have been replaced by dispatch workers. Many individuals employed in Tokyo bear the burden of substantial housing loans. When their jobs cannot adequately meet their living expenses, a significant number of these workers are left with no choice but to become homeless around Tokyo. After the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, Tokyo, as a primary hub of labor force, experienced another blow. Many industries, such as tourism, retail and catering, have been devastated, and even young people have found it difficult to get jobs during the pandemic. Then temporary unemployment villages” have been formed in downtown Yoyogi Park and Shinjuku Station.
2. The unfair housing rental market system
Young people make up a large proportion of the urban population in Tokyo, but most of them are not from the metropolitan area or the affluent class. Their economic ability is limited, after entering Tokyo, the first choice is still renting. But the conservative and profit-driven rental market has discouraged many new workers who have moved to Tokyo or young people who lack long-term stable jobs. When signing a rental housing contract, there will be various conditions including income proof, insurance and other restrictions. Therefore, some free or low-cost accommodation facilities in the “low profit” model of the operation of the housing came into being. While these accommodations may appear to offer better living options for laborers, their operation still carries a significant degree of exploitation. In addition to rent, residents are also charged various so-called living expenses in the name of management fees, food fees, and utilities. Furthermore, residents are required to assume managerial responsibilities such as cooking and cleaning. This further diminishes the consumption capacity of this group of laborers who may be back to poverty as city vagrants at any time. In Tokyo, there are also many illegal houses, such as “Internet cafes” and “mini coffee shops” as signs of small space in the room, which are welcomed by young people and even unemployed people. These establishments provide a relatively improved level of personal privacy compared to outdoor spaces. Moreover, they operate on a daily payment basis, with some even offering complimentary shower facilities and providing basic meals to meet minimal nutritional requirements. Many homeless people named ‘Daytime homeless youth’ for preferring to choose self-isolation in these places.
3. The unstable mental state of urban low-income people
Tokyo is a city characterized by intense competitive pressures, particularly within the realm of employment. Young people may experience immense pressure and anxiety as a result. The societal expectations and traditional norms in Japan also exert significant pressure on young people. Historically, young people have been expected to work and start families in major cities like Tokyo, following conventional career paths such as becoming government bureaucrats or corporate employees. However, many young people in Tokyo might not be interested in adhering to this predetermined lifestyle. Additionally, they might grapple with issues such as long working hours, workplace harassment, and a lack of work-life balance. This could lead to feelings of exhaustion and dissatisfaction, prompting them to adopt a ‘lying flat’ attitude or even resort to homelessness as a means of escaping from their circumstances. As revealed by random surveys conducted by the Tokyo Government among young homeless individuals in the city, over 20% of respondents indicated that they chose to embark on a homeless lifestyle due to immense psychological pressure and an inability to adapt to the work environment, leading them to seek solace in isolation. Some respondents even expressed that homelessness and ‘lying flat’ allowed them to pursue their true interests and values. This phenomenon has become particularly pronounced in the post-pandemic era. Mental health issues constitute another significant factor contributing to young people becoming homeless. Many of them may suffer from mental disorders, including depression, schizophrenia, and substance abuse. These problems can prevent them from maintaining stable housing and employment, leading them to the homelessness.
Challenges in emergency assistance for Tokyo’s homeless population
1. The Ambiguity in defining ‘urban homeless people’
In Japan, the definition of urban homeless is not clear at the national level. According to Article 2 of the ‘Special Measures Act for Assistance to the Homeless’ enacted in 2002, the definition of homeless people includes those who live their daily lives without a formal residence, using urban parks, rivers, roads, stations, and other facilities as places of abode. The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare calculates the number of homeless people across the country every three years according to the national law. The number of homeless people decreased from 8,296 in 2015 to 4,977 in 2018, and the number of homeless people in 2020-2021 increased from 2018, but remained at around 5,000. Among them, the population of homeless individuals aged 40 and below constitutes approximately 18%, while the population of homeless individuals aged 30 and below is only about 8%. However, in reality, numerous homeless people continue to roam the streets of Tokyo. The data compiled based on the unclear definition has led to a significant ‘distortion’ in statistics, especially in the post-pandemic era. A substantial number of young individuals are facing unemployment or underemployment due to widespread business closures. For instance, in 2021, Tokyo introduced the ‘Support Program for Self-Reliance of Homeless Population’ to address the issue of urban homelessness. In the preliminary survey conducted for this purpose, although reference was made to the survey results and statistical criteria of the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, a more pragmatic sampling plan was devised. In addition to administrative districts, more extensive sampling was conducted in different functional areas such as parks, riversides, and suburban mountain areas. In just the river areas of three districts, there were at least 600 respondents who fit the criteria of Tokyo’s local definition of the homeless. Homeless people aged 40 and below accounted for over 30%, with more than 68% being unmarried.
2. Passive methods of collecting data on urban homeless people
Due to limited government resources, it’s not feasible to allocate additional manpower and resources to proactively conduct extensive and long-term visits within the city to discover and collect data on homeless people. In Tokyo’s existing emergency assistance system for the homeless population, the primary method of data collection and refinement relies on self-declarations by homeless individuals and reporting by local organizations within the region to calculate and improve the count of the homeless. The passive data collection approach results in delayed and less accurate outcomes. For instance, in the 2018 Tokyo population census, the registered count of homeless or those without a fixed address was just over 8,700 individuals. By 2021, after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, there was even a certain decline in this count. Many existing data on homeless people were not updated, and this severely diverged from the actual situation as revealed by Tokyo government’s field surveys. One of the reasons for this situation is that Japan’s emergency rescue audit system is too strict. In addition to carefully checking the assets and income of the applicant, the asset audit is also carried out on the relatives who have maintenance obligations of the applicant. This invasion of privacy makes applicants feel uncomfortable and reluctant to seek emergency assistance due to the intrusive nature of the process. As a result, the Tokyo government cannot ascertain the exact number of urban homeless individuals, and even traditional random street surveys cannot rectify the registered data of homeless people.
3. The regional limitations of social assistance
Despite Japan’s well-developed and comprehensive social assistance system, urban homeless people exhibit uncertainty and fluidity in their circumstances. For Example, many urban homeless individuals in Tokyo actually possess social insurance in their original jurisdictions. However, due to the regional limitations of social assistance, when they move across prefectures or face other urgent situations that lead to survival difficulties, they are unable to receive the appropriate social emergency assistance even if they have social insurance coverage in their original jurisdictions. How to assist these displaced urban homeless individuals and how to provide them with greater support within the local emergency assistance system, while avoiding significant additional burdens on the city’s finances, personnel management, environmental optimization, and other aspects, presents a considerable challenge to Tokyo’s emergency assistance system.
4. Japan’s traditional culture of shame regarding accepting assistance
In Japan’s traditional culture, there is an extreme emphasis on ‘independence’ and ‘sense of boundaries,’ which is reflected in many urban homeless people in Tokyo actively and subconsciously avoiding seeking emergency assistance. For many urban homeless people who moved to Tokyo from other places, accepting assistance from the social system implies an acknowledgment of their impoverished situation. This sense of ‘shame’ can restrict some of the more prideful impoverished individuals, leading them to be unwilling to accept emergency assistance. As previously mentioned, the formation of urban homeless individuals stems from a multitude of factors. These include objective factors such as insufficient labor market demand due to economic downturns, natural disasters, and more, making it impractical to apply a blanket approach to emergency assistance and management. There are also subjective elements, such as overwhelming psychological stress and feelings of disillusionment towards life and work, that lead to adopting a ‘lying flat’ attitude and a willful rejection of emergency assistance.
Information-based Emergency Assistance System for Homeless People
In Japan, there is a certain delay and uncertainty in the legal aspect of urban homeless people. Therefore, there is a greater reliance on local governments to play a more substantial role in emergency assistance. In the 2021 Tokyo Homeless Support Program, the Tokyo government proposed utilizing the opportunity of hosting the Olympic Games to enhance the city’s level of digitalization in urban governance. This initiative outlined a more detailed action plan for emergency assistance to homeless people. This initiative involves leveraging big data to track the movement trajectories and behavioral patterns of individuals, thereby creating an information-based emergency assistance system for homeless individuals. It integrates the urban homeless population into the real-time city information monitoring system and continually enriches the system’s data through mobile patrols, facilitating more convenient emergency assistance.
1. Emergency medical reporting mechanism for rescue
the Tokyo government has integrated the emergency medical reporting mechanism with digital personnel management. This integration has become a vital component of the real-time city information monitoring system, enabling comprehensive tracking of the health status of homeless people. Specifically, led by the Tokyo government, designated personnel from corresponding administrative agencies in different districts are dispatched to conduct surveys and register the health conditions of homeless people within their respective jurisdictions. The objective is to achieve electronic health records for each registered urban homeless person. This health record information possesses a certain degree of shareability, not only accessible to local governments but also available for application by various collaborating organizations and businesses. Currently, Tokyo is also enhancing its urban surveillance system. If the registered homeless individuals are observed to stay in a certain area for an extended period or if any health-related issues are detected from their vital signs through the surveillance system, the electronic health data of the individuals will be updated in real-time. The docking government staff will be also directly notified. Medical costs in Tokyo are extremely high, which the homeless are unable to afford. To address this, the government is spearheading a targeted ‘green channel’ for emergency medical care. This involves coordinating emergency assistance through the information system, collaborating with designated medical institutions, and establishing connections. Once a homeless person receives emergency assistance, the relevant institution automatically receives their hospital admission application, facilitating the sharing of real-time health information.
2. Enhancing emergency shelters and facilities for the urban homeless
Beyond physical health concerns, the lack of stable and safe emergency temporary shelters for homeless individuals is also a pressing issue according to the Tokyo government. Therefore, the Tokyo government proposed in the 2022 “Urban Homeless Support Action Program” that emergency shelters should be classified through the city information system to classify homeless people with different characteristics to facilitate follow-up support. Firstly, there are medical care shelters. These shelters are directly integrated with the city’s management system, allowing for continuous observation and surveillance 24 hours a day. They are strategically located near cooperating hospitals and clinics. Additionally, medical professionals including doctors and nurses are available on rotation, ensuring immediate medical assistance if needed. The Tokyo government recognizes that these individuals experiencing homelessness require urgent emergency assistance and monitoring to prevent potentially life-threatening situations. This is why they emphasize the need for comprehensive emergency monitoring and medical care to address these pressing concerns. Second is the rehabilitation facility. The facility operates mainly in connection with shelter facilities provided by local cooperative agencies or autonomous organizations, and is open to homeless people who are not seriously ill or cannot afford to pay for a medical bill. Different social organizations will provide medical resources and living resources to a certain extent, and according to the number of people in the place and the different needs, the system will automatically propose resource allocation suggestions to help such homeless people reintegrate into society after their condition improves. Lastly, there is another type of emergency shelter that allows temporarily displaced homeless individuals to stay, including those whose original residences have been destroyed due to natural disasters or those who have temporarily lost housing due to financial reasons. Such places rely more on the city’s information system for daily maintenance and operation, and can be updated and changed at any time. For example, in areas where homeless people are concentrated, more resource will be allocated. Additionally, within Tokyo’s homeless population, there are people who do not fit the criteria for these three types of shelters. This group includes those who strongly resist being accommodated and those with a high level of mobility. According to the survey on the distribution of homeless people, most of them are in the urban rivers, harbors, parks and other places of activity, so mobile rescue stations are also set up in these key places to do a good job of sanitation and infrastructure maintenance.
3.Balanced arrangement of emergency rescue resources for homeless people
In addition to the urban area in Tokyo, there are many suburbs adjacent to the neighboring Kanagawa and Saitama prefectures. According to statistics, in 2018, the suburban homeless shelters had already accommodated more than 1600 homeless people, exceeding the facility’s capacity. Additionally, there are still many homeless individuals who have not entered these shelters and continue to wander in the suburban mountains and forests. These people often come from other areas and lack essential food and medical support. Some are even living in precarious housing situations in the suburbs, which could potentially have a negative impact on the lives of local residents. Therefore, the Tokyo government proposes integrating the urban geographical information system with emergency assistance for homeless individuals, allowing for the dynamic adjustment of emergency assistance resources. For example, in the core areas of Shinjuku, Shibuya and Taito District, there are more than 300 homeless people in total in the sampling survey of the metropolitan government. In the urban information system, the movement tracks of homeless people have more overlapping, greater density and high complexity. More information observation devices and rescue resources will be deployed in these areas. In remote areas with lower homeless population density, these regions can be collectively designated as an assistance resource zone. They can rely more on the urban monitoring system or proactive reports from residents. When homeless individuals are identified in suburban areas, automated arrangements can be made to send personnel for confirmation and assistance in the vicinity. This approach helps prevent wasteful allocation of resources. At the same time, Tokyo cooperated with nearby regions to jointly set up a one-stop service center of “information confirmation – emergency rescue – follow-up support” at the junction of more homeless activities. Assuming that homeless people are from nearby counties and cities, identity information registration and rescue support can be carried out by the localities through electronic files established in the areas where homeless people belong. If homeless people come from more distant prefectures or cities, after creating their information records, emergency assistance and guidance can be provided. Following this, based on their preferences, further support can be extended, including assistance in vocational development. This approach helps prevent excessive migration of homeless individuals from suburban areas into Tokyo’s urban center and mitigates potential safety risks associated with continued wandering.
4. Establishing a self-reliance support system for the urban homeless
The Tokyo government proposed that with the help of the city information system, centering on the goal of “restoring the self-reliance of the homeless”, the establishment of a self-reliance support system for the homeless that matches the emergency rescue system for the homeless. The Tokyo government believe that the emergency assistance system is considered a temporary humanitarian measure, aimed at improving and supplementing the deficiencies in Japan’s national social security system. To fundamentally address the issue of urban homelessness and save more social public resources, it is necessary to utilize the assistance of urban information systems. This involves creating electronic trajectories by tracking and recording the long-term physical and mental health as well as developmental trends of the urban homeless people. This approach aims to assist them in regaining their labor capacity to the greatest extent possible. Within this self-reliant support framework, by creating hotspot maps illustrating the distribution of urban homeless individuals, responsibility zones are delineated through collaboration among district governments, autonomous organizations, and enterprises from different sectors. At the same time, homeless people who meet the working conditions are arranged to practice and resume labor training in cooperative enterprises and organizations. Even after urban homeless individuals have successfully reintegrated into regular life, the government will periodically conduct random follow-up visits based on their electronic information profiles, ensuring their rights to work and live are adequately protected. Among the urban homeless people, the elderly and women are more distinctive entities, requiring more targeted assistance and care. The Tokyo government has proposed the establishment of dedicated protective shelters, equipped with specialized electronic tracking and safety devices, to provide them with a means of seeking help in emergency situations. This setup ensures real-time information sharing of their location and well-being. These shelters will have dedicated mental health professionals and medical staff to provide assistance and guide them towards engaging in more community volunteer activities, thereby preventing potential secondary harm.
The enlightenment of Japan’s experience to China
1. Integrating the advantages of an information categorization and management system into human-centered emergency assistance work is very important. The formation of urban homeless people is attributed to a variety of reasons. However, when they find themselves in a state of homelessness, there is often a certain degree of avoidance or reluctance towards them within society. Therefore, in the process of conducting emergency assistance work, it is important to implement electronic record classification and management on a one-on-one basis as much as possible. Starting from the actual physical and mental health conditions of homeless individuals, long-term, diligent, and scientifically-oriented tracking and support should be provided for different groups and even representative cases. This approach will contribute to enriching the database of the management system. Simultaneously, by expanding the pool of editors and participants within the urban information management system, granting authority for information sharing and editing to social organizations and businesses engaged in emergency assistance, their collaborative role in urban homeless emergency aid can be effectively harnessed. This approach further enhances the functionality of the information database concerning urban homeless people.、
2. Tailored mobile emergency assistance should be provided based on the distinct reasons for homelessness and the specific needs of urban homeless people. Homeless people often form settlements due to similar homeless reasons. It is necessary to grasp the characteristics of different homeless groups through adequate research, and carry out mobile emergency assistance in a targeted manner, rather than traditional food and economic assistance. Taking inspiration from the self-reliance assistance program implemented by the Tokyo government, Chinese urban government can create hotspot maps and delineate regions based on the concentration of urban homeless people. Besides establishing psychological counseling and guidance programs can help cultivate accurate employment perspectives among the homeless population. These programs can guide them towards gaining self-confidence and a sense of control over their lives while working, thereby alleviating their feelings of helplessness. This approach facilitates their reintegration into the workforce and enables them to contribute socially. Upon successful employment, creating individual information profiles, conducting periodic follow-ups, and offering timely support can be implemented to prevent recurring homelessness situations.
Major Teng is a research fellow at Asia Pacific Regional Development Institute of Hong Kong and he focuses on East Asian studies and China-Japan comparative politics research.